Twenty-nine year old Jos6 Rolando Twenty-nine year old Jose Rolando Pantaleon was playing soccer in front Pantale6n was playing soccer in front ofof his house in Guatemala City on his house in Guatemala City on Sunday July 6, when three men stepped Sunday July 6, when three men stepped out of a car with polarized windows and out of a car with polarized windows and draggeddragged him away. Later that day his him away. Later that day his body was found in an emptybody was found in an empty lot, his jaw lot, his jaw dislocateddislocated and the skin torn from his and the skin torn from his back.back. Like many of the thousands of Like many of the thousands of GuatemalansGuatemalans who have been similarly who have been similarly murdered,murdered, Jose Rolando was a union Josd Rolando was a union activist;activist; he belonged to the Coca-Cola he belonged to the Coca-Cola WorkersWorkers Union. Unlike the rest, he was Union. Unlike the rest, he was anan actor in the union theater company, actor in the union theater company, Dos Que Tres. Shaken by the crime, the Dos Que Tres. Shaken by the crime, the remainingremaining members of the company members of the company decideddecided to disband. to disband. DosDos Que Tres-a figurative transla- Que Tres-a figurative translation wouldtion would be "six of one, haIfa dozen be "six of one, half a dozen ofof another' '-was the only working another"-was the only working classclass theater group to have existed in theater group to have existed in GuatemalaGuatemala City in the past 35 years. City in the past 35 years. WithoutWithout the aid of professionals, Dos the aid of professionals, Dos QueQue Tres grew out of the conflictive Tres grew out of the conflictive historyhistory of the Coca-Cola Workers of the Coca-Cola Workers
Deborah LevensonDeborah Levenson is an assistant is an assistant professor ofprofessor of history at Columbia Uni- history at Columbia University. versity.
Union:Union: Between 1976 and 1980, eight Between 1976 and 1980, eight workersworkers were assassinated and dozens were assassinated and dozens jailed and beaten. In 1984, four years jailed and beaten. In 1984, four years after some stability had been achieved, after some stability had been achieved, Coca-ColaCoca-Cola shut down the plant. In the shut down the plant. In the midst of a national state of seige and midst of a national state of seige and with war raging in the countryside,with war raging in the countryside, the the work force of 400 insisted the plant re- work force of 400 insisted the plant reopenopen and occupied the premises until and occupied the premises until the demandthe demand was won. was won. The occupation lasted a year, during The occupation lasted a year, during whichwhich the occupiers had what Guate- the occupiers had what Guate-malanmalan society denies working people society denies working people -time,-time, space and encouragement to space and encouragement to create.create. Several workers wrote and pro- Several workers wrote and producedduced a play called "El Gran Robo" a play called "El Gran Robo" (The Great Robbery), the story of how (The Great Robbery), the story of how Coca-Cola'sCoca-Cola's owners faked bankruptcy owners faked bankruptcy inin a desperate attempt to destroy the a desperate attempt to destroy the union.union. Performed in costume on an Performed in costume on an expansiveexpansive loading platform to amuse loading platform to amuse the bored butthe bored but tense occupiers, "El Gran tense occupiers, "El Gran Robo"Robo" was not only an effective ve- was not only an effective vehiclehicle for transmitting working class for transmitting working class history,history, it was good theater. it was good theater. InIn 1986, the group took a name and, 1986, the group took a name and, with the financialwith the financial backing of the union, backing of the union, wentwent on the road after work and on on the road after work and on Sundays.Sundays. The ten young men and one The ten young men and one womanwoman (and more recently two chil- (and more recently two children) who comprised the group wrote dren) who comprised the group wrote two plays and gave over 200 presenta- two plays and gave over 200 presentations in Guatemala City's poor neigh- tions in Guatemala City's poor neighborhoods and in the working class towns borhoods and in the working class towns ofof Escuintla, Puerto Barrios, and Escuintla, Puerto Barrios, and Amatitlan. They also performed at Amatitlhin. They also performed at several plantations at the request of several plantations at the request of ruralrural unions. The goals of Dos Que unions. The goals of Dos Que TresTres were forthright: "to cultivate and were forthright: "to cultivate and rescuerescue popular art in our country, to popular art in our country, to raiseraise the cultural level of our the cultural level of our compaieros...tocompaneros...to awaken class con- awaken class consciousnesssciousness through the plays we pres- through the plays we present." ent."
A Story Without A Story Without Denouement Denouement
The two plays, entitledThe two plays, entitled "Beginning "Beginning WithoutWithout an End, 1" and "Beginning an End, 1" and "Beginning Without an End, 2,"Without an End, 2," were comic trage- were comic tragedies whichdies which encouraged people to mobi- encouraged people to mobilize and defend themselves, while alert- lize and defend themselves, while alerting them to the risks such action entails. ing them to the risks such action entails. The first tells of howThe first tells of how an owner tries to an owner tries to stop the workersstop the workers on his plantation from on his plantation from organizingorganizing a union. First he gets the a union. First he gets the ChristianChristian Democratic Minister of La- Democratic Minister of Labor to "repressbor to "repress them without violence" them without violence" -stall-stall them, discourage them, give them, discourage them, give themthem a legal runaround. When that fails, a legal runaround. When that fails, he trieshe tries to bribe the leaders; and when to bribe the leaders; and when that toothat too falls flat, he calls in the army, falls flat, he calls in the army, whichwhich massacres all but two of the massacres all but two of the workers.workers. In the closing scene the two In the closing scene the two survivors,survivors, consoled by workers from consoled by workers from thethe city, pledge to begin again. Far city, pledge to begin again. Far fromfrom being presented as some sort of being presented as some sort of mystical belief in ultimate victory, this mystical belief in ultimate victory, this decision-anddecision-and the message of the the message of the play-isplay-is a simple acknowledgement a simple acknowledgement that Guatemalan workers have no other that Guatemalan workers have no other choice. choice. "Beginning"Beginning Without an End, 2" Without an End, 2" continuedcontinued but did not conclude the story but did not conclude the story of the first play. The plots of each were of the first play. The plots of each were clearly not comic, but the manner in clearly not comic, but the manner in which Dos Que Tres portrayed politi- which Dos Que Tres portrayed politicians, plantation-owners, functionar- cians, plantation-owners, functionaries andies and military officers was hilarious military officers was hilarious -breaking-breaking the paralyzing effect of the paralyzing effect of thinking them sacrosanct. For the thinking them sacrosanct. For the members ofmembers of the group, Dos Que Tres the group, Dos Que Tres waswas a singular source of empower- a singular source of empower-ment. One actor, whose brother had ment. One actor, whose brother had been disappeared,been disappeared, explained that it was explained that it was a "relief for me to speak of political a "relief for me to speak of political violence in this way...to not hide from violence in this way...to not hide from what haswhat has pained me so deeply." pained me so deeply." TheThe plays tried to bridge the gap plays tried to bridge the gap betweenbetween city workers and rural ones by city workers and rural ones by explainingexplaining the importance of the coun- the importance of the countryside as a suppliertryside as a supplier of foodstuffs to the of foodstuffs to the city, by criticizingcity, by criticizing prejudice against the prejudice against the indigenousindigenous rural work force, and by rural work force, and by ridiculing urbanridiculing urban stereotypes of the rural stereotypes of the rural poor as dirtypoor as dirty stupid folk. In these plays, stupid folk. In these plays, oneone sees Guatemala as a story without sees Guatemala as a story without denouement:denouement: Repression goes on and Repression goes on and onon and on, neither reform nor revolu- and on, neither reform nor revolution ever arrives. Urban and rural work- tion ever arrives. Urban and rural workers continue organizing and although ers continue organizing and although the struggle of unions to exist seems the struggle of unions to exist seems SisypheanSisyphean at times, some workers do at times, some workers do reachreach the top of a mountain, only to find the top of a mountain, only to find higherhigher peaks ahead. peaks ahead. Inventive,Inventive, quick-paced and poign- quick-paced and poignant,ant, the work of Dos Que Tres became the work of Dos Que Tres became increasinglyincreasingly well-known and perform- well-known and performances drew hundreds.ances drew hundreds. As the sole work- As the sole workinging class artistic group in Guatemala, class artistic group in Guatemala, DosDos Que Tres was one of the labor Que Tres was one of the labor movement's most powerfulmovement's most powerful organizing organizing tools,tools, reaching more people more ef- reaching more people more effectivelyfectively than leaflets, newspaper ad- than leaflets, newspaper advertisementsvertisements and speeches from podi- and speeches from podiums.ums. Besides explicit political mes- Besides explicit political messages,sages, the group put forth an implicit the group put forth an implicit existentialexistential one: Not only do workers one: Not only do workers havehave the wherewithal to make culture, the wherewithal to make culture, inin so doing they challenge the hegem- so doing they challenge the hegemonyony of the dominant culture. of the dominant culture.
Dull-wittedDull-witted Anticommunism Anticommunism
AttacksAttacks on Dos Que Tres began on Dos Que Tres began early this year. Jos6 Rolando Pantale6n early this year. Jose Rolando Pantaleon receivedreceived death threats, as did brother death threats, as did brother and co-performerand co-performer Flavio Pantaleon, who Flavio Pantale6n, who was shot in the foot after a performance was shot in the foot after a performance inin March. Over succeeding months, March. Over succeeding months, threatsthreats against Jose Rolando, Flavio against Jos6 Rolando, Flavio andand two fellow actors, Carlos Rodas two fellow actors, Carlos Rodas andand Evarado Palma, came more fre- Evarado Palma, came more frequently.quently. They were tailed, and uniden- They were tailed, and unidentifiedtified men came to their homes asking men came to their homes asking for them. for them. ShortlyShortly before his murder, Jose before his murder, Jos6 RolandoRolando wondered aloud whether he wondered aloud whether he shouldshould leave the country, but he had no leave the country, but he had no time to choose. Perhaps he did not think time to choose. Perhaps he did not think he was ahe was a likely target; after all, he was likely target; after all, he was nono longer working at the Coca-Cola longer working at the Coca-Cola plant, he wasplant, he was not the group's director, not the group's director, hehe was not even a principal actor. But in was not even a principal actor. But in Guatemala-whereGuatemala-where the powerful know the powerful know howhow to play on the prejudices of the to play on the prejudices of the humanhuman rights profession-these may rights profession-these may all be reasonsall be reasons why he was singled out: why he was singled out: It isIt is an unfortunate truth that his death an unfortunate truth that his death did not sparkdid not spark the outcry which would the outcry which would havehave resulted had he been a middle resulted had he been a middle class artist or a well-knownclass artist or a well-known union leader. union leader. ButBut it worked to put an end to Dos Que it worked to put an end to Dos Que Tres-at leastTres-at least for the time being. for the time being. UrbanUrban popular art has faced govern- popular art has faced governmentment repression ever since the 1954 repression ever since the 1954 coupcoup which overthrew reformist presi- which overthrew reformist presidentdent Jacobo Arbenz. During the 1944- Jacobo Arbenz. During the 1944-19541954 decade, Guatemala's brief glimpse decade, Guatemala's brief glimpse ofof democratic life, adult and juvenile democratic life, adult and juvenile educationeducation expanded, illiteracy started expanded, illiteracy started to fall,to fall, new publishing houses opened, new publishing houses opened, andand a national dance company and a national dance company and orchestraorchestra came into being. The artists' came into being. The artists' circlecircle Saker-Ti was passionately in- Saker-Ti was passionately involved in social issues; and the concept volved in social issues; and the concept thatthat culture belonged to everyone had culture belonged to everyone had esteem.esteem. Dozen of trade union newspa- Dozen of trade union newspapers flourished, publishing drawings, pers flourished, publishing drawings, cartoons,cartoons, poetry and short stories by poetry and short stories by artisansartisans and workers, and reprinting and workers, and reprinting exceptsexcepts from Gorky, Zola, Marx, Mis- from Gorky, Zola, Marx, Mistral,tral, and Neruda. and Neruda. Since thenSince then the cultural life of Guate- the cultural life of Guate-malamala City has been severely restricted, City has been severely restricted, particularlyparticularly for the urban poor. The for the urban poor. The reigningreigning ideology of dull-witted anti- ideology of dull-witted anti-communismcommunism views imagination, zest views imagination, zest andand intellectual depth as subversive. intellectual depth as subversive. IlliteracyIlliteracy is very high, a mere 4.6% is very high, a mere 4.6% graduategraduate from high school. A modern from high school. A modem cultureculture industry barely exists, there is industry barely exists, there is nono trade union press, and there are few trade union press, and there are few avenuesavenues for the expression of popular for the expression of popular art. Attemptsart. Attempts by university students and by university students and facultyfaculty to create the space for intellec- to create the space for intellectualtual and artistic life have been repeat- and artistic life have been repeatedly and violently frustrated. Most of edly and violently frustrated. Most of thethe country's finest artists have been country's finest artists have been killed orkilled or exiled: essayist Luis Cardoza exiled: essayist Luis Cardoza y Arag6n,y Aragon, the poets Otto Rene Castillo, the poets Otto Ren6 Castillo, RobertoRoberto Obregon and Alaida Foppa, Obreg6n and Alaida Foppa, painterpainter and sculptor Roberto Cabrera, and sculptor Roberto Cabrera, and the playwrightsand the playwrights Manuel Galich and Manuel Galich and Manuel Jos6Manuel Jose Arce are just a few. Teatro Arce are just a few. Teatro Vivo,Vivo, a professional troupe which in a professional troupe which in thethe 1 970s wrote about and for workers 1970s wrote about and for workers and peasantsand peasants and performed in the open and performed in the open air,air, was forced to go abroad. was forced to go abroad.
MiraclesMiracles of Initiative of Initiative
Under theUnder the current Christian Demo- current Christian Democraticcratic government, Guatemala City government, Guatemala City remainsremains intellectually stifled. The rare intellectually stifled. The rare occurrenceoccurrence of a folk concert which of a folk concert which includedincluded nueva cancion protest songs, nueva canci6n protest songs, in April of lastin April of last year, was cut short by a year, was cut short by a bomb. Thebomb. The exceptions-a few revivals exceptions-a few revivals ofof works by Manuel Galich and Manuel works by Manuel Galich and Manuel Jos6 Arce, andJose Arce, and the production of Hugo the production of Hugo Carrillo'sCarrillo's magnificent "El Senor magnificent "El Sefior Presidente"--playPresidente' '-play to packed houses, to packed houses, usuallyusually for short runs, and are miracles for short runs, and are miracles ofof initiative and courage, as was the initiative and courage, as was the workwork of Dos Que Tres. of Dos Que Tres. If the middleIf the middle class has faced violent class has faced violent repressionrepression for its attempts to communi- for its attempts to communicatecate intellectually and artistically, the intellectually and artistically, the urbanurban poor have had far greater prob- poor have had far greater problems.lems. Besides the violence, they have Besides the violence, they have been deniedbeen denied the tools, from literacy to the tools, from literacy to thethe wages to buy a decent paint brush. wages to buy a decent paint brush. They have no sociallyThey have no socially sanctioned space sanctioned space in whichin which to be creative. Their time has to be creative. Their time has beenbeen absorbed in other types of produc- absorbed in other types of production,tion, and they have had absolutely no and they have had absolutely no funding.funding. To be an artist in these circum- To be an artist in these circumstancesstances requires tremendous will. requires tremendous will. Jos6 RolandoJose Rolando Pantaleon found that Pantale6n found that will.will. Born into a poor working class Born into a poor working class family, he workedfamily, he worked hard since he was a hard since he was a small boy.small boy. Tall, thin and limber, with a Tall, thin and limber, with a rubberrubber face, his friends called him el face, his friends called him el gato seco,gato seco, the skinny cat. He was new to the skinny cat. He was new to make-up,make-up, lighting, and rehearsals, lighting, and rehearsals, scripts,scripts, sets, and props, and new to sets, and props, and new to makingmaking people feel, as he did, the power people feel, as he did, the power ofof being a social actor-one whose life being a social actor-one whose life advancesadvances the drama of his people. As is the drama of his people. As is the casethe case in Guatemala, when he decided in Guatemala, when he decided to become ato become a protagonist in his nation's protagonist in his nation's history,history, Jose Rolando was gambling Jos6 Rolando was gambling all,all, and he ended up losing. and he ended up losing.
